Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.). Cities: Capital--Ulaanbaatar (pop. 575,000). Other cities--Darhan (90,000), Erdenet (58,000). Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert wasteland, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested. Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective--Mongolian(s). Population (1992): 2.3 million. Annual growth rate (1992): 2.6%. Health: Infant mortality rate (1992)--47/1,000. Life expectancy (1992)--63-68 yrs. Ethnic groups (1989): 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian. Languages: Khalkha Mongol, more than 90%; minor languages include Kazakh, Chinese, and Russian. Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism. Education: Years compulsory--8 (provided free by the government). The traditional Mongolian script has been revived, and there are plans to officially replace Cyrillic by 1994. Literacy--more than 90%.
Government
Type: Parliamentary form of government, president second in authority to the State Great Hural. Independence: 1921; democratic reform and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared 1990. Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.
Branches: Executive--power divided between a president (elected by a popular election in June 1993) and prime minister (cabinet nominated by the new prime minister was formed in Aug. 1992 by the State Great Hural which was elected in June 1992). Legislative--State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial--Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the Constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. Recently, Mongolia began accepting ICJ jurisdiction.
Political parties: 11 announced political parties (see box pg. 5). Suffrage: Universal at 18.
Administrative subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).
Flag: Three vertical bands--red, sky-blue, red; on the left red band the Mongolian national emblem, in yellow.
Economy
GDP: $2.2 billion (1992). Per capita GDP: $998 (1992).
Aid received: Donors promised $325 million in aid, loans, and assistance at 1992 Tokyo Donor's Conference (millions): Japan, $68; U.S., $35; Republic of Korea, $15; Germany, $9; U.K., $5; European Community, $5.
Official exchange rate (July 1993): 399 tugriks=U.S.$1.
Fiscal year: Calendar year. (###)
PEOPLE
Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common.
Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 3.3%. About three-fourths of the total population are under age 30, 45% of whom are under 16. Forty-nine percent of all children are pre-school age. More than 50,000 families have five or more children.
Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language*. Mongol is an Altaic language (from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia--a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies) related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Many Russians left the country following Mongolia's declaration of independence.
_____________
*Mongol is an Altaic language (from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia--a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies) related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese.
______________
Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence.
About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.
HISTORY
In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as Central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.
Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368.
The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.
Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.
The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic (M.P.R.) was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.
Between 1925 and 1928, M.P.R. power under the communist regime was consolidated. The M.P.R. left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period--the society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.
In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country--the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings.
During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and build-up of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.
Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to post-war development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.
In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. The M.P.R. and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966, which introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces to part of Moscow's general build-up along the Sino-Soviet frontier.
During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China also deteriorated. In 1983, the M.P.R. systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in the M.P.R. since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.
Many factors may have motivated this shift: a historical Mongolian antipathy for the Chinese; continued tensions on the Sino-Mongolian border (despite a 1964 demarcation); statements attributed to Beijing suggesting a continued interest among some Chinese for re-annexing Mongolia; Russia's historical counterbalancing of Chinese influence; and heavy Mongolian dependence on Soviet economic aid.
Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present
March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.
May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.
May-September 16, 1939: Large-scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on M.P.R.-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.
October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded M.P.R. and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.
October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.
January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.
December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.
March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.
May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.
July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.
September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.
February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.
April 8, 1992: New election law passed.
June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).
June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.
GOVERNMENT
Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system. Until May 1990, only the communist party--the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)--officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.
The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The first demonstrations were held in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989; the development of this democracy movement brought swift and peaceful changes in Mongolia. The government adopted a positive approach toward reform.
The dramatic shift toward reform actually started in 1990. At that time, the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of popular demands for faster reform, the leadership of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body (Baga Hural--small Hural), and establishing the office of president. Mongolia's first multi-party elections were held on July 29, 1990.
A People's Great Hural was elected on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. It first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP--Social Democrats--also chairman of the Baga Hural), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural.
In November 1991, the Great Hural began discussion of a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).
The constitution also provides that the president will be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as an opposition candidate. As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semi-annually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms. The first SGH was elected on June 28, 1992. The MPRP won about 57% of the popular vote, but won 70 of 76 seats in the SGH.
The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.
The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.
Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.
Political Parties
-- Bourgeois Party (Bourgeois)
-- Buddhist Democratic Party
-- Green Party (Greens)
-- Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP)
-- Mongolian Independence Party (Independence)
-- Mongolian People's Party (MPP)
-- Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)
-- Mongolian Worker's Party (MWP)
-- Social Democratic Party (SDP)
-- United Party of Farmers and Herdsmen (Herdsmen)
-- United Party of Private Property Owners (PPOP)
Principal Government Officials
President--Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat
Prime Minister--Puntsagiyn Jasray
Minister of External Relations--Tserenpiliyn Gombosuren
Legal System
The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions, excluding specialized court rulings, upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.
Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities--district and city governors--ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members--including a chairman--appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.
ECONOMY
The rapid political changes of 1990-91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants.
The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.
In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with non-communist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed. As of January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.
Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises is largely complete, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992.
Prospects for development away from reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's land-locked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Mongolia's best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment by further liberalizing the economy and expanding trade with non-traditional partners. A new foreign investment law designed to provide increased incentive to investors was enacted in mid-1993.
Foreign aid has been necessary, and, in the past, the former Soviet Union was the principal source of aid and credit. Mongolia's estimated debt to the former Soviet Union in 1992 was more than $10 billion in transferable rubles. Considerable technical assistance also came from the former Soviet Union and East European countries. Mongolia is seeking foreign assistance and investment from the West and international financial institutions to replace former Soviet bloc aid and to promote development of a market economy.
Environment
As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land has increased soil erosion from wind and rain. The government responded by founding the Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1987 and by increasing publicity on environmental issues.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
In the wake of the collapse of the international socialist economic system and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and non-aligned foreign policy. The prime minister called for co-existence with all nations. Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the newly independent republics and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries.
China
Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. In 1991, the Chinese President and Executive Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission, Yang Shangkun, visited Mongolia, marking the first visit by a Chinese head of state. Several agreements were signed during the visit. Yang praised the establishment of direct ties between a number of Mongolian ministries, organizations, local areas and private firms, and their Chinese counterparts. The Mongolian premier visited Beijing in May 1992. That month, the Chinese and Mongolians signed an agreement establishing new border-crossing points.
Russia
After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states (NIS). Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary difficulties in developing fruitful coordination occurred because the NIS were experiencing the same political and economic restructuring as Mongolia. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. The Prime Minister's visit of March 1992 resulted in an Inter-governmental Commission on Trade and Cooperation, allowing faster transport of goods and exempting Mongolian exports from Russian customs duties. Soviet troop withdrawals from Mongolia began in 1987 and were completed in September 1992. In April 1992, the Russian Ambassador presented his credentials to the Mongolian Prime Minister. President Ochirbat's January 1993 trip to Moscow resulted in a new treaty on friendly relations.
Asia
Mongolia aims to establish a more balanced non-aligned foreign policy. It is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Mongolia's Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990. Mongolia's President attended Emperor Akihito's coronation, and Japan's Prime Minister visited Mongolia in August 1991. The Mongols expressed great appreciation for the $67 million in grants and loans that Japan provided as well as Japan's coordination of international assistance to Mongolia.
Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. In April 1992, a Mongolian delegation attended its first forum of Parliament leaders of countries of Asia and the Pacific in Hawaii.
Europe
During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France, and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. Mongolia seeks closer relations with other countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Community (EC). The prime minister traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EC headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation.
Mongolians, in pursuing a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible, have made official visits (high-level officials and/or parliamentarians) to other countries, including Australia, Nepal, the Philippines, and Pakistan, and have established diplomatic relations with a number of nations, even those as far flung as Oman and Brunei, among others. Israel accredited an ambassador to Mongolia from Tokyo.
U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS
The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987, and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. Ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there; Joseph E. Lake, the first resident Ambassador, arrived in July 1990, and will be succeeded by Donald Johnson. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first Ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Prime Minister Jasray visited the United States and met with Secretary Christopher in June 1993.
The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status, and supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement also has been signed.
In 1991, the U.S. Agency for International Development initiated a program of technical assistance and training in Mongolia. The United States also provided about 25,000 tons of wheat and flour in 1992 to help alleviate a severe food shortage. For FY 1993, the United States has provided Mongolia with $10.3 million in infrastructure and developmental assistance and $17 million in food and commodity assistance, including 25,000 metric tons of wheat.
With strong support from the United States, Mongolia joined the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank in early 1991. All three institutions are providing technical, financial, and project aid. The United States worked closely with Japan and the international organizations to organize four donor group meetings during 1991-93, which succeeded in raising and coordinating substantial financial and development assistance for Mongolia. (###)
Department of State Publication 7955
Contents of this publication are not copyrighted unless indicated. If not copyrighted, the material may be reproduced without consent; citation of the publication as the source is appreciated. Permission to reproduce any copyrighted material (including photos and graphics) must be obtained from the original source. (###)
